To what extent was the use of terror in the maintenance of power in Saddam’s Iraq and Hitler’s Germany?

After Adolf Hitler rose to power in 1933 in Germany, which led to a period of new methods that he used to help him maintain his power. Saddam Hussein also used methods of terror to maintain his rule following his rise to power in 1979. The difference in the periods brings forth room to explore the research question of this investigation: "To what extent was Adolf Hitler's use of terror in Germany similar to Saddam Hussein's use of terror rule in Iraq in the maintenance of power?".

This specific research question provides my investigation a focus on the similarities between Saddam and Hitler, specifically the ways in which they used their influence to grasp total control of the citizens of their respective nations and in turn, remove opposition that stemmed from political and social aspects to maintain control. The research question also delves into looking through the other factors, that differed in their use of terror.

In Hitler's Germany 1933-1945, rule was classified by mass persecution, repression of opponents, and opposition of the state not forgetting genocide- as well known as the Holocaust. The use of police including; the Gestapo, the SS, as well as concentration camps, was implemented to further disintegrate any opposition and ultimately create a climate of fear. The use of terror came from obsessive nationalism and anti-semitism.

On the other hand, Saddam Hussein reigned from 1979 to 2003. His rule focused on a similar set of tactics, which included but was not limited to; the use of secret police, and repression of opposition.

The comparison of these two leaders in their usage of terror specifically in maintenance. They both used similar tactics however differences prevailed such as; time and methods used. Exploring Hitler's and Hussein's regimes in greater depth reveals major differences in their aspirations, ideological underpinnings, and the scope of their impact on both national and global landscapes.

The use of terror has long since been applied by dictators and true to form Saddam Hussein and Adolf Hitler unleashed the same tactic in their maintenance of power. They used this method to wipe out and reduce dissent. The way they practiced the use of terror was similar in various ways.

Both leaders employed the use of secret police in their maintenance of power in their respective countries. The secret police is a police organization operating mostly in secrecy, especially for the political purposes of its government and often using methods of terrorism (Merriam-Webster, 2023).

In Germany, the Gestapo was the secret police, a feared unit that was used to violently suppress Nazi resistance (Augustyn., 2023). Similarly in Iraq, Saddam had the Mukhabarat also known as the 'General Intelligence Directorate of Iraq' (Pike & Aftergood, n.d.). These groups conducted their business with complete impunity, suppressing dissent using surveillance, infiltration, and intimidation (McNamara, 2019). Heinrich Himmler's Gestapo had wide authority to hold and question anyone who was allegedly hostile to the Nazi government (Gestapo | Holocaust Encyclopedia, 2021). Similar to this, Hussein's Mukhabarat, which was completely under his command, used brutal methods to destroy any perceived threats to his power.

Similar methods were used by these organizations to plan unlawful executions, torture, and arbitrary detentions. All of these acts were taken to enforce unflinching conformity and create a stifling web of fear. A mere suggestion of disagreement could lead to a disappearance or imprisonment, creating an atmosphere where paranoia thrived and self-censorship developed.

Moreover, the secret police of Hitler and Saddam played a pivotal role in enforcing their respective ideologies and policies (Storm Troopers, Elite Guards, and Secret Police, 2022).

In both Hitler's and Saddam's cases, the secret police forces were essential tools in their machinery of terror. Through systematic surveillance, brutal suppression, and ideological enforcement, these agencies played a crucial role in silencing opposition and perpetuating the leaders' authoritarian rule.

Furthermore, there is a striking similarity in the employment of purges by both dictators in their maintain Adolf Hitler's purge of Nazi leaders on June 30, 1934, is known in German history as the Night of the Long Knives (Tikkanen, 2023). This event resulted in the brutal execution of SA leaders and other rivals who were perceived as challenging his supremacy within the Nazi Party. Hitler used this method of terror to weed out all the dissent that he felt was being dished out to the nazi party. The Night of the Long Knives is a prime example of how Hitler employed purges as a way to silence all forms of dissent and opposition, which potentially undermined his hold on power.

Similarly, Saddam focused on targetting those individuals perceived to pose an oppositional stance or who were considered enemies to his dictatorial power and authority that he had exclusively monopolized. Systematic purges were used by the Ba'ath Party, military, and administration under his rule. Purge, to eliminate all threats to his reign, perpetrate terror, and completely crush any dissension (Yusuf, 2019). The event that highlights Saddam's use of purges happened in Baghdad 40 years ago on July 22, 1979, in an event that is popularly known as the 1979 Ba'ath party purge (Yusuf, 2019). During this purge, Saddam ruthlessly eliminated political rivals within Iraq's Ba'ath Party after he assumed the presidency. This purge aimed to maintain his power and eliminate opposition, solidifying his authoritarian rule.

Both Hitler and Saddam sought to establish a setting where their power remained uncontested and allegiance was unquestioned by putting an end to resistance through purges. Hitler and Hussein showed ruthless determination in getting rid of potential challengers to their power, making sure no one could threaten their authority from within (Tikkanen, 2023).

Moreover, another similar method of terror by the two authoritarian leaders was a reliance on the web of informants. Hitler's Gestapo and Saddam's Mukhabarat enlisted informants to gain information on the potential dissidents or opposition that was ongoing in the country respectively (Informants - The Holocaust Explained: Designed for Schools, n.d.). In Both Saddam and Hitler's respective countries the knowledge that friends, neighbors, or family members could be informers instilled an atmosphere of distrust, as well as an increase in self-censorship and paranoia (Spying on Family and Friends, 2022)

In Nazi Germany, informants were significantly useful to Adolf Hitler's regime in its relentless pursuit of control and suppression. These informants engaged in activities such as closely monitoring people's actions, conversations, and behaviors, and then submitting detailed reports to authorities. From there the government used the information and identified and targeted individuals perceived as enemies of the Nazi regime (Lupsha & Shoemaker, 2023). It enabled the government to track dissenting voices, suppress opposition, and implement repressive measures against targeted groups. (Hall, 2009). This source is valuable to my research as it provided me with information on the Gestapo. However, the source is limiting as it doesnt provide specific information on the web of informants.

Moreover, the collected data allowed the Nazi regime to shape its propaganda and control the flow of information, further manipulating public perception to align their thoughts with their aims.

Similarly, in Saddam's Iraq there was a mentionable use of informers in gaining information from the citizens and to further understand how the government should treat the public. Informants within Iraq's society, government, and military closely monitored individuals suspected of disloyalty or opposition to Hussein's rule. A significant example is a woman named Kifah who was recruited as an informer and was instructed to pose as a nurse and go to Kurdistan after the defeat of the March uprising (al-Khafaji, 1992). This example truly highlights the lengths to which informers had to go to get information for the regime.

While the motives behind their actions differed, the foundation plan for the impact of informers was strikingly similar. In a nutshell, the activities of informants highlight the shared strategy that was adopted by both Hitler and Hussein to bring out a sense of monitoring energy that surrounded the people of the respective countries, Paranoia lingered, and vulnerability within their respective societies continued to grow. Informers, therefore, contributed to the atmosphere of terror that served as a pivotal point in the maintenance of power by these two dictators which needs to be a recognized factor.

Both dictators employed the use of terror by security services. Saddam Hussein's Iraq used what is known as General Security Service also known as al-amn al-'mm. At the same time, e Hitler used the SS (Schutzstaffell, or Protection Squad). These two agencies were strikingly similar in the performance of their duties.

The SS started as a personal bodyguard unit for Adolf Hitler and other high-ranking Nazi officials (SS | Holocaust Encyclopedia, n.d.). It later evolved into a major security and intelligence organization. The SS was responsible for carrying out tasks that ensured the loyalty of party members, detecting and suppressing dissent, and monitoring the German population.

The SS (Schutzstaffel) had multifaceted roles in Hitler's Germany: elite bodyguard for Hitler, administering concentration and extermination camps, enforcing racial purity through the Lebensborn program, managing intelligence through the SD, and fostering terror and loyalty via the Gestapo's secret police activities. (Background & Overview of the SS, n.d.)

Similarly, in Iraq, the General Security Service (GSS) also known as al-amn al-'mm was established in 1921 during the British Mandate era and is Iraq's oldest security agency. It acted as a political security police force, identifying public disagreements, responding to political crimes, and stopping illegal economic activities (Al-Marashi, 2002). In both countries, the two general security departments met any form of dissent with utmost terror including bombings, shootings, purges, and public executions.

Moreover, the two authoritarian states used similar ways to persecute minorities. In Iraq the minorities were; Kurds, Shi'a Muslims, and various other minorities. On the other hand in Hitler's Germany the individuals who were seen as minorities included; Jews, Romani people (gypsies), homosexuals, disabled individuals, Jehovah's Witnesses, communists, socialists, political dissidents, and religious minorities such as Jehovah's Witnesses.

In Hitler's Germany, he had various ways in which he used to persecute the minorities, the methods he used were given with a hard fist and strived of injustice. An example is the Nuremberg Laws of 1935 which brought with it an era of anti-Semitic discrimination as well as going to the extent of stripping Jews of their citizenship and rights (Berenbaum, 2023). This was followed by the Kristallnacht horror in 1938, where Jewish homes, businesses, and synagogues. Hitler introduced rules to sterilize the "Untermensch" (undesirables) these discriminatory policies aimed to establish a homogeneous Aryan population by systematically targeting and persecuting those who did not fit into the Nazi-defined racial hierarchy. The methods used to sterilize the undesirables included but were not limited to; compulsory abortions, euthanasia programs, forced sterilization which came under the law for the prevention of genetically diseased offspring in 1933 as well as involuntary medical experiments which were part of the sterilization programs.

Other persecuted minorities in Germany were Romanis, handicapped persons, Poles, Soviets, and homosexuals. They suffered prejudice, brutality, and annihilation.

Similarly in Saddam's Iraq, there was the persecution of minorities. To begin with, the Fayli Kurds, a Shi'a Muslim ethnic group that resides in the Zagros Mountains which is located near the Iraq-Iran border had endured severe mistreatment due to their minority status as well as their proximity to Iran. The Ba'ath Party Labeled them as "Iranians", and they faced severe discrimination (Johns, n.d.). The discrimination that they faced included; forced displacement, economic discrimination, cultural and religious suppression, surveillance and intimidation as well as the denial of citizenship. The persecution of the Fayli Kurds was part of a broader campaign of the oppression and marginalization of various ethnic and religious minority groups.

Moreover, The Marsh Arabs, living for millennia in southeastern Iraq's wetlands, faced tragedy when Saddam drained their marshlands for control and eradication of Shi'a rebels. This act left the inhabitants, who relied on fishing and farming, displaced and deprived (Johns, n.d.).

Saddam's "Anfal" campaign, inspired by a Quranic chapter, aimed at eradicating Kurds from 1988-1989. Orchestrated by "Chemical Ali," it employed chemical weaponry and mass killings against Kurdish "rebels". Villages were bombed, homes were set on fire, and civilians were murdered. The strategy involved assaults, strategically aimed at men, youths, and those who supported the Kurdish resistance (Johns, n.d.). Saddam's era saw intensified oppression, especially towards the minorities. Targeted for ethnic cleansing, they were subjected to violence, forced removal, and imprisonment.

Saddam Hussein and Adolf Hitler, though separated by time and place, employed similar strategies involving military intelligence to enforce terror and maintain their grip on power.

Control of the German people in Nazi Germany was in the hands of three Nazi Party institutions: the SS-SD-Gestapo (Heydrich, n.d.). Often referred to by its German abbreviation "SD" (Sicherheitsdienst), the Hitler Military Intelligence was a significant unit within the Nazi dictatorship in charge of security and intelligence operations. When it was first established in 1931, the SD served as the Nazi Party's security division. Later, under Heinrich Himmler's direction, the SD's responsibilities were expanded (Vashem, n.d.).

However, in Saddam's Iraq, he used the same military intelligence. Known as the Mudiriyyat al-Istikhabarat al-'Askariyya al-'Amma (General Military Intelligence Directorate) (Al-Marashi, 2002). The responsibilities included but were not limited to; performing tactical and strategic reconnaissance of regimes hostile to Iraq. Second of all; assessing threats of a military nature to Iraq. Third, monitoring the Iraqi military and ensuring the loyalty of the officer corps Fourth; maintaining a network of informants in Iraq and abroad, including foreign personnel and military human intelligence; and protecting military and military-industrial facilities. (Al-Marashi, 2002). The source by Al-Marashi provides crucial details on Saddam Hussein's security apparatus, including its organization and functions. However, it is largely concerned with Iraq's internal security procedures, limiting its relevance to a research question comparing Hitler and Saddam's use of terror.

Both Adolf Hitler and Saddam Hussein used terror to stay in power, but their strategies, reasons for doing so, and the historical situations in which they did so were very different. Hitler's ascent to power was fueled by a specific fascist ideology and a determination to establish an ideologically and ethnically pure state (Ránki, 1960). On the other side, Saddam Hussein sought to control a varied country that was split along ethnic and sectarian lines, yet was motivated by a totalitarian thirst for power.

These contrasting objectives caused differences in their use and execution of terror in their maintenance of power. To fully comprehend the differences it is key to understand the era both authoritarian leaders were in and the execution, and target while remembering the extent.

A striking difference is the extent to which they used terror to maintain power. An example is the use of concentration camps. In Hitler's Germany, he depended on the use of concentration camps; a tactic that was lacking in Saddam's Iraq. The idea of the concentration camps began shortly after Hitler took power in 1933 (Gaur, 2023) with the first concentration camp, Dachau, established on March 22, 1933. The camp was located in southern Germany, to imprison political opponents as well as to reduce opposition. Over time more concentration camps were installed all around the country. The conditions were inhumane and were designed to instill fear and overall maintain absolute control. There was extreme overcrowding, inadequate food as well a lack of sanitation. This was done deliberately by Hitler to demoralize the prisoners which in turn suppressed any resistance or dissent (Caplan & Wachsmann, 2009). Terror in the ruthless implementation of the concentration camps was essential as the horrors of the camp were used to serve as an example for the population, which created an atmosphere of intimidation. Hitler worked this tactic to his advantage significantly as it systematically acted as a bulwark for dissent, a method for the maintenance and implementation of various aspects of his regime.

While on the other hand, Saddam Hussein's regime followed a different path. His tactics focused mainly on other oppressive methods to maintain control. The techniques and tactics they employed to spread terror and suppress rebellion varied, with one obvious difference being the absence of concentration camps under Saddam Hussein's rule. In terms of Saddam Hussien his regime, focused solely on brutal campaigns against the already identified "enemies of the state". This was highlighted during the Iran-Iraq War and the Anfal campaign against the Kurdish population which involved mass killing, forced displacement, and the use of chemical weapons (Finley & Chalabi, 2005). In contrast to Hitler's concentration camps, which were primarily designed to inspire dread and compel forced physical labor on a large scale in order to suppress any possible dissent, Saddam Hussein's dictatorship used a different strategy. Instead of relying solely on physical labor and intimidation, Saddam's regime used a combination of fear tactics, including state-sponsored violence, strict censorship, strategic propaganda, and an extensive network of informants, to suppress opposition and resistance (Bahgat, 2005). The key contrast is the scale, frequency, and efficacy with which these strategies were employed. Unlike Hitler's largely labor-centric and harsh techniques, Saddam Hussein's dictatorship emphasized the subtle but widespread use of terror, employing a variety of instruments to achieve its goals.

Adolf Hitler and Saddam Hussein were leaders who employed terror to maintain control and authority over their respective nations. However, they differed in terms of the targets for terror and focused on how they approached terror and the people they brutalized.

Hitler's primary targets were Jews, along with other groups he deemed racially or ethnically inferior, such as Romani people, disabled individuals, and political dissidents. On the other hand, Saddam Hussein's targets included political opponents, Kurds, and Shia populations, often using violence to suppress uprisings and maintain his grip on power.

To begin with, in Saddam Hussein's regime, terror was more directed towards his people particularly those perceived as threats to his regime. As discussed earlier he utilized a pervasive secret police force known as the Mukhabarat, employing surveillance, arbitrary arrests, torture, and executions to suppress dissent, opposition, and any perceived threats to his rule. Hussein's fear-based control was largely internal, seeking to maintain absolute authority and quell any threats to his rule within the country.

In contrast, Adolf Hitler's terror extended beyond his citizens to a genocidal scale, encompassing not only Germans but also millions of Jews, Roma, and other minority groups (Bartov, 1998). His ideology was expansionist, intending to establish a Greater German Reich that would include most of Europe and beyond. Hitler targeted citizens of Germany as well as other nationalities living under the German state, particularly those deemed "undesirable" by the Nazi dictatorship, such as Jews, Romanis, and other minorities (Irzyk, 2018).

Hitler's regime implemented large-scale, industrialized genocide during the Holocaust, resulting in the deaths of approximately 6 million Jews and millions of others. While Saddam Hussein's regime engaged in mass killings and atrocities, including the use of chemical weapons against Kurdish civilians, the scale of his actions was generally smaller in comparison to Hitler's genocidal campaigns.

The target comparison goes hand in hand with the difference in ideology for each of the authoritarian leaders. Hitler's ideology was based on wanting to create a "greater Germany". The slogan "Greater Germany" was a major component of Adolf Hitler's ambition for growth and dominance, and it played an important part in the context of his regime's horror. Germany would finally be at par with the Western nations to redeem themselves from the humiliation they had faced at the hands of the Western powers, especially with the resentment they had from the Versailles treaty of 28th June 1919. He believed that Germany had been humiliated by the Versailles Treaty, which had imposed harsh terms on the country after its defeat in World War I. Hitler wanted to create a Greater Germany that would be one of the most powerful nations in the world (Darwin, n.d.).

Hitler's ideology was also influenced by his belief in racial superiority. He believed that the Aryan race, of which the Germans were a part, was the superior race and that all other races were inferior. His ideology revolved around Aryan supremacy, anti-Semitism, and territorial expansion, reflecting an aggressive and expansionist ambition (Silberklang, 2016). This belief led him to persecute and exterminate Jews, Roma, and other groups that he considered to be inferior (Wallenfeldt, 2023). Hitler's aggressive foreign policies aimed at territorial expansion and the extermination of targeted groups to achieve racial purity and dominance over a wider geographical region. Hitler's targeting of not only his people but also various minority groups and nations highlighted his intent to establish a totalitarian fascist state beyond Germany's borders.

As for Saddam Hussein, his ideology completely differed. The Ba'athist regime was rooted in Arab nationalism and socialism. Arab nationalism was at the heart of Saddam Hussein's thought. He wanted the Arab people to unite and be strong. He aimed for Iraq to be a powerful Arab country with a population that shared a common Arab identity. He utilized this idea to instill a sense of nationalism and patriotism among the Iraqi people. Through his ideology, he forged a strong sense of national unity. Socialism went hand in hand with Arab nationalism. Saddam Hussein's vision for his country was one in which the government was actively involved in economic control and management. He thought that by doing so, they would be able to ensure that money and significant resources were allocated evenly among Iraqis. To do this, he desired that the government acquire and manage important companies and essential services. The objective was to narrow the gap between rich and poor people and improve the population's overall quality of life (Post, 1991).

In this sense, due to their ideological differences and different targets to which the terror was being given, it highlights the difference in the use of terror in their separate maintenance of power.

Additionally, the methods used to inflict terror on the respective populations differed. Saddam Hussein's terror was often more arbitrary and unpredictable than Hitler's. He would often have people arrested or executed without warning, simply because he suspected them of disloyalty (Sicherman, 2011). Hitler, on the other hand, was more methodical in his use of terror. He had a carefully organized bureaucracy that implemented his policies of genocide (Wachsmann, 2004). In terms of the methods of implementing terror, Saddam Hussein built a personality cult around himself, promoting an image of a "God-like" individual while also being ruthless. He utilized propaganda, statues, and public displays to reinforce his authority and intimidate the population. Saddam Hussein employed multiple intelligence agencies, such as the Mukhabarat, to spy on the population, identify dissidents, and suppress any form of opposition. The constant surveillance and the fear of people reporting on each other stopped anyone from speaking out or disagreeing. In addition, Hitler's methods differed significantly. Hitler and the Nazi regime pushed an ideology of Aryan supremacy and anti-Semitism through propaganda, indoctrination, and censorship of opposing views. They used media and mass rallies to spread their hateful ideology.

Not forgetting the methods that included but are not limited to; Gestapo and SS, Concentration and Death Camps, Eugenic Policies, and Forced Sterilizations.

In conclusion, both Saddam and Hitler used terror to maintain their grip on power. Through similar methods such as purges to maintain their power. The leaders were provided a platform to complete remove dissent and allow the leaders to maintain their power. However, this method of terror brought out significant differences in the fact that the leaders had different extents to which they employed this method of maintenance as well as, the ideology that this use of terror was explored through. Due to the difference in ideology was the use of terror was bound to be different. This method provided a platform to complete remove dissent and allow the leaders to maintain their power.

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