Investigating the recency effect on the memory of high school students

Memory refers to the cognitive process by which information is encoded, stored, and retrieved in the brain. It involves the retention and recall of past experiences, knowledge, and skills (Squire, 2009). This complex process has prompted multiple explanations, which as a cognitive process cannot be directly observed. The Multi-store Model of Memory (Atkinson and Shiffrin, 1968), attempts to explain this assumption of cognitive psychology. This theory suggests that human memory operates through a series of 3 distinct stores, each with its characteristics and functions. These stores include sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. Sensory Memory is where information is briefly registered and stored, preserving a snapshot of the external world. It has a limited duration of about 1 second for visual stimuli and 2-5 seconds for auditory stimuli and is highly susceptible to decay if one does not pay attention to the information unit. Short-term memory (STM) comes from information that was paid attention to in the sensory memory, where it’s temporarily stored and is characterized by a limited capacity of no longer than 30 seconds, typically holding around seven items for a short duration unless rehearsed. Long-term memory (LTM) has information deemed important or rehearsed sufficiently from STM, which has a virtually limitless capacity. This model is necessary for our investigation as the recency effect provides evidence for the existence of short-term memory and its 30-second capacity. This theory is relevant to our investigation in the sense that a clear understanding of memory patterns would aid in the classroom approach for the high school students in the investigation. The use of rehearsal would allow the high school students to retain the memory of syllabus content.

Glanzer and Cunitz (1966, experiment 2) conducted a study to investigate the serial position effect which proved the hypothesis of the MSM model. They aimed to examine the serial position effect with and without the presence of a filler activity. The procedure involved presenting participants with a list of words (15-word lists) and instructing them to recall as many words in 3 main conditions: a free-recall task immediately after the presentation, a filler activity involving counting out loud backwards from a random number for 10 seconds and the same filler activity but for 30 seconds. The results of their study revealed a robust pattern: participants were more likely to recall words presented at the beginning and end of the list in all conditions. The recency effect was present in the first condition, slowly disappeared in the second, and was almost completely gone in the third condition. These results agreed with the assumptions of the theory that stated the different memory stores, conditions for transfer from one store to another, and the 30-second duration of the STEM. Because of this, Glanzer and Cunitz provide the basis for our replication.

Our study aims to investigate the recency effect in high school students. Specifically, we will explore how the presence or absence of a filler activity influences the recall of the last 5 words presented from a 15-word list. This aim is worth replicating as it would help in understanding the memory patterns in high school students who depend on knowledge retention. Students may discover that they have individual variations in their susceptibility to the recency effect. Some might find that they rely heavily on recent information, while others might have a more balanced memory retrieval. Recognizing one's learning style can inform personalized study approaches.

• The independent variable (IV)- the presence or absence of a 30-second filler activity
• Dependent variable (DV)- the presence of recency effect as operationalized as the proportion of words correctly recalled in the last 5 words out of a 15-word list
• Null Hypothesis- There will be no significant difference in the proportion of words correctly recalled out of the last 5 words in a 15-word list by high school students in the presence and absence of a filler activity.
• Research Hypothesis- High school students will be more likely to remember the last 5 words of a 15-word list if no filler activity is present but less likely to remember the last words with the presence of a filler activity.

In this study, we employed a repeated measures design. This design was chosen to compare the recall of words under two different conditions (with and without a filler activity) within the same group of participants. A repeated measures design allowed us to obtain more data points from a limited number of participants, making the most efficient use of our resources and thus suitable for examining the impact of the independent variable (IV) on the dependent variable (DV) within the same participant group.

The sampling technique utilized for this study was convenience sampling, where we used year 10 students who were free to participate in the experiment. As we were in a boarding school, they were a readily available group, which saved us time and resources to carry out our experiment.

The sample was drawn from high school students aged 16-17. This age group was selected because it represents a cohort of individuals likely to be actively engaged in educational settings, where the serial position effect could have practical implications. All the participants were natural English speakers with none of them having any knowledge of psychology. 17 participants participated in both conditions. The male-to-female ratio was 8:9. These characteristics were intentionally balanced to minimise potential gender and age-related confounding variables that might influence memory recall. This age group was also eligible to sign their consent forms. We used year 10 students as they had no previous knowledge of Psychology, and thus they would not work out the aim and act out of demand characteristics. Moreover, the year 10 students all did the subject English as a first language and this ensured that they could all have equal level of understanding of the English words used. We ensured that we used monosyllabic words which have low difficulty levels to ensure that the rate of recall was not influenced by the difficulty of the words read out. The students all sat in a quiet room secluded from external noise, and they sat equidistant from the researcher so that they all heard the same words thus distance was not a factor. The same researcher read out all the words at a consistent rate of a one- second break between each word. This ensured that there was no tonal variation in either condition. Each participant had a fixed time of 30 seconds to recall the words read out to them to ensure consistency in both conditions.

• 2 15-word lists of monosyllabic words obtained from the Thorndike-Lorge list (see Appendix A). This was the same material used by the original experiment. The words were simple and clear which facilitated recall.
• Informed consent forms (see Appendix B) were used to ensure that all participants were aware of their participation making their participation voluntary. As they were all 16 and above, they signed their consent forms which ensured we adhered to ethical guidelines.
• The questionnaire (see Appendix C) contained specific instructions and post-experiment feedback.
• Debriefing forms (see Appendix D) were used to ensure the participants were disclosed to the details surrounding the experiment as an ethical consideration.

• Participants signed consent forms
• Participants were given a breakdown of the procedure and what would be required during the experiment as written in the questionnaire.
• In the first condition, the first 15-word list was read out at a consistent rate of 1 second per word.
• Participants were given 30 seconds to recall and write down the words read out.
• A 5-minute break was provided before the second condition.
• In the second condition, the second 15-word list was read out by the same researcher at the same rate.
• Participants did a filler activity where they counted out loud from 30 back to 0. This was led by one of the researchers.
• The same 30-second recall time was provided.
• Participants were appreciated and debriefed about the details of the experiment.

Because we produced ratio data, we identified the mean and standard deviation (3 s.f) of both experiments (see raw data in Appendix E).

The table above presents the mean and standard deviation as we had no outliers and took into account every individual. In the control group, the mean as seen above is 2, while the experimental group had a mean of 1.53. The average recall of the control group was higher than the experimental group, which could imply that the condition without a filler task may have an easier recall compared to the experimental group. The standard deviation for the control group showed that the participants had a lower measure of spread from the mean, showing that the control group had more consistent results. However, the experimental group had a higher standard deviation

The Figure above shows that the filler task could have an impact on the results since the mean of the control group was higher than the experimental condition. This could suggest that the 30- second delay may have had an impact on short-term memory, and thus the experimental hypothesis could be accepted. However, the inferential statistics show the opposite.

Since we have a repeated-measures design, we carried out the Wilcoxon signed-rank test (see Appendix F). The critical value of W at p<0.05 of a one-tailed hypothesis is 41, and the observed value was 42.5 which was greater than the critical value. The test was therefore not significant at p<0.05. Therefore we reject the experimental hypothesis and accept the null hypothesis. It can thus be concluded that any difference in recency effect with or without a filler activity is due to chance.

The inferential statistics from our Wilcoxon test showed that results were insignificant thus we rejected the research hypothesis and accepted the null which stated that any difference in recency effect, with or without a filler activity, was due to chance. These results therefore do not provide support to the multi-store model of memory which hypothesizes that the participants should have a higher recall rate without the 30-second filler activity compared to the activity which would prove the existence of the short-term memory as a unitary store. On the contrary, the descriptive statistics support the theory as memory retention was higher in the control group thus supporting the idea that no filler activity would increase the recall. These results may have been due to the difference in ages between our participants and the original study’s participants (16-17 for our study and 40 for the original study).

We used the repeated measures design which involves having the participants go through both levels of the IV. This brought up some advantages such as using fewer participants, 17, to achieve our results. Moreover, because few participants were used for each condition it reduces participant variables. Too many individual differences would affect the validity of the results and therefore having the same differences in both conditions would ensure that we see a cause-and- effect relationship. One such drawback, however, is the experience of order effects. The order in which participants experience the conditions can influence their performance or responses. This can be due to factors like fatigue or practice effects which can affect the accuracy of the results. To improve this, we could use counterbalancing as a strategy to avoid the order effects. This would involve splitting the participants into two groups and having them take part in the two different levels of the IV, then once completed, they can switch and take part in the other remaining level.

We had a group of 18 participants which included 9 boys and 9 girls. They were all between the age range of 14 to 17 (non-psychology students as well) all from the same international school in Kenya. Using non-psychology students was beneficial as they lacked a level of familiarity with psychological concepts or tasks that psychology students might have which could affect participants' performance in the study. Having a gender balance in our sample was crucial for the representativeness of the general population and helped reduce gender-related biases in the results. However, the sample was only limited to year 10 students in our school thus limiting the generalizability of the findings. This could have been improved by using a broader range of classes from different schools to increase generalizability.

Our procedure for replicating the serial position effect had several benefits, including using English language questionnaires to ensure understanding, and having the same experimenter read the words to the participants to maintain tonal consistency. The standardized procedure ensured that confounding variables were eliminated, as the room was quiet to avoid noise as much as possible. Moreover, all the participants had an equal 30 seconds to recall the words on the list to ensure that none had any extra time to recall as this would affect the accuracy of the results. However, the accent of the researcher may have affected the ability of all participants to clearly understand the words read out. To improve this, we could have used an automated text reader to ensure all the words were pronounced with as much clarity as possible.

Atkinson, R. C., & Shiffrin, R. M. (1968). Human memory: A proposed system and its control processes. In Psychology of learning and motivation (Vol. 2, pp. 89-195). Academic Press.

Glanzer, M., & Cunitz, A. R. (1966). Two storage mechanisms in free recall. Journal of verbal learning and verbal behaviour, 5(4), 351-360.

Popov, A. (2018). IB Psychology Study Guide: Oxford IB Diploma Programme.

Squire, L. R. (2009). Memory and brain systems: 1969–2009. The Journal of Neuroscience, 29(41), 12711–12716. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3575-09.2009

Study Title - Serial Position

Effect Experimenter’s Name(s) - Trisha Nzaumi, Ryan Wendo and Ivy Madara

Description of Experiment - The participant will hear 2 lists of words. The participant will then be instructed by the experimenter to recall the number of words they remember. The participants' responses will then be evaluated.

In order to participate in this research study, it is necessary that you give your informed consent. By signing this informed consent form you are indicating that you understand the nature of the research study and your role in that research and that you agree to participate in the research. Please consider the following points before signing -

• I understand that I am participating in psychological research;
• I understand that my participation will be anonymous (that is, my name will not be linked with my data) and that all information I provide will remain confidential;
• I understand that I will be provided with an explanation of the research in which I participated and be given the name and contact information of an individual if I have questions about the research. In addition, I understand that I may contact the IB Psychology Teacher; Ms. Diana at dnyamburah@naisulaschool.ac.ke if I have questions concerning my rights as a participant in psychological research.
• I understand that participation in research is not required, is voluntary, and that, after any individual research project has begun, I may refuse to participate further (withdraw) without penalty.

By signing this form I am stating that I understand the above information and consent to participate in this study being conducted at Naisula School by IB Psychology students.

Signature - _______________________________ Date - ___________________

Print First Name -_________________________ Print Last Name - _________________________

Please read the following instructions carefully before proceeding to the questionnaire.

In this study, you will be presented with a list of words. Your task is to recall as many words as possible after each presentation. There will be two conditions: one with no filler activity and the other with a filler activity of counting backwards for 30 seconds. Please indicate the specific words you remember from each position on the list.

Should you have any questions about your participation in this experiment, kindly ask either Trisha Nzaumi, Ryan Wendo or Ivy Madara before it begins.

Please indicate the words you remember from each position on the list without a filler activity - 

First Word -  _____________________________________

Second Word -  ______________________________________

Third Word -  ______________________________________

Fourth Word: ______________________________________

Fifth Word -  ______________________________________

Sixth Word -  ______________________________________

Seventh Word - ______________________________________

Eighth Word -  ______________________________________

Ninth Word -  ______________________________________

Tenth Word -  ______________________________________

Eleventh Word -  ________________________________________

Twelfth Word -  ________________________________________

Thirteenth Word -  _________________________________________

Fourteenth Word -  _________________________________________

Fifteenth Word -  __________________________________________

Please indicate the words you remember from each position on the second session.

First Word -  _____________________________________

Second Word -  ______________________________________

Third Word -  ______________________________________

Fourth Word: ______________________________________

Fifth Word -  ______________________________________

Sixth Word -  ______________________________________

Seventh Word - ______________________________________

Eighth Word -  ______________________________________

Ninth Word -  ______________________________________

Tenth Word -  ______________________________________

Eleventh Word -  ________________________________________

Twelfth Word -  ________________________________________

Thirteenth Word -  _________________________________________

Fourteenth Word -  _________________________________________

Fifteenth Word -  __________________________________________

We would like to appreciate you for your cooperation and participation in our experiment. This study was a replication of the study conducted by Glanzer and Cunitz (1966) concerned with the serial position effect(primacy and recency effect). The primacy and recency effect proposes that people are more likely to recall information from the beginning (primacy) and end (recency) of a list than things in the middle. The presence of the serial position effect was tested in this investigation through a filler activity(distraction task).

In this study, you were asked to perform two tasks- one involving the presentation of a 15-word list and a free recall, and the other involving the presentation of a 15-word list, a filler activity, and then a free recall. This was designed to test the duration of the STM(said to be 30 sec) and the influence of a distraction task in the recall of a word list.

We expected that the presence of a filler activity would cause a decrease in the proportion of words correctly recalled.

The results of the study will help us determine the distinctiveness between the LTM and STM, the necessity of rehearsal, and the duration of the STM, all in relation to the Multi-store model of memory. These aspects are important as they help us explain how humans learn and remember.

If you are interested in learning more about the study conducted, you may want to consult with Ryan, Trisha, or Ivy.

Thank you again for your participation.